UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

BERKELEY 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BENJ.  IDE    WHEELER,    PRESIDENT 
THOMAS  FORSYTH  HUNT,  Dean  and  Director 
H.  E.  VAN  NORMAN.  Vice-Director  and  Dean, 

University  Farm  School 


CIRCULAR  138. 

(September,  1915.) 

THE  SILO  IN  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURE. 

By  F.  W.  Woll. 
The  many  inquiries  in  regard  to  silo  construction  and  the  feeding 
of  silage  that  come  to  the  College  every  week  testify  to  the  interest 
taken  in  these  subjects  by  our  farmers  and  to  their  importance  in  Cali- 
fornia agriculture.     The  present  circular  is  published  for  the  purpose 


Fig.   1.     Filling  the  silo  with  alfalfa. 

of  furnishing  information  along  this  line  to  parties  interested,  and  of 
giving  a  brief  discussion  of  the  experimental  work  done  with  silage 
crops  by  our  College  up  to  the  present  time. 

A  couple  of  decades  ago  but  few  farmers  knew  what  the  words  silo 
and  silage  meant,  but  these  terms  are  now  familiar  to  all  who  read 
agricultural  papers  or  publications,  or  who  live  in  sections  where  dairy- 
ing or  stock  raising  are  important  industries.  Most  farmers  now  know 
that  a  silo  is  an  air-tight  structure  used  for  the  preservation  of  forage 
18506 


crops  in  a  succulent  condition,  and  that  the  green  forage  placed  in  the 
silo  is  called  silage  (formerly  ensilage)  after  it  has  undergone  certain 
changes  through  fermentations  and  respiration  of  the  plant  cells  that 
occur  for  a  time  after  the  silo  has  been  filled.  Silage  forms  an  excel- 
lent succulent  feed  for  nearly  all  classes  of  farm  animals  and  is  of 
special  value  in  the  feeding  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Dairy  farmers  were  the 
first  to  build  silos  and  to  adopt  silage  as  a  regular  part  of  the  rations 
for  their  stock.  In  eastern  and  central  states  the  silo  is  now  generally 
looked  upon  as  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  dairying,  both  for  winter 
feeding  and  for  feeding  in  summer  and  early  fall  supplementary  to 
scant  pastures.  Of  late  years  other  stock  farmers,  especially  cattle- 
men, have  also  become  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  the  silo  may  be  of 
great  value  to  them  in  their  feeding  operations. 

While  the  history  of  the  silo  dates  back  to  antiquity,  it  is  only  during 
relatively  recent  years  that  separate  silo  structures  have  been  built. 
The  introduction  of  the  silo  on  American  farms  may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  eighties,  and  especially  during  the  last  dozen 
years  silos  have  gone  up  in  large  numbers  on  dairy  and  stock  farms. 
In  the  thirteen  Mississippi  Valley  states  nearly  31,000  silos  were  built 
in  1913,  and  over  8,000  were  built  in  Wisconsin  alone  the  same  year, 
making  a  total  of  about  42,000  silos,  or  one  on  every  four  farms  in 
that  state.  Statistics  from  other  states  where  dairying  or  cattle  rais- 
ing are  leading  industries  would  doubtless  show  that  the  silo  has 
assumed  similar  importance  in  the  system  of  feeding  farm  animals 
there  and,  as  noted,  this  change  has  come  within  comparatively  recent 
years. 

The  silo  has  become  a  common  feature  of  the  equipment  of  stock 
farms  in  many  parts  of  this  state,  and  the  value  of  silage,  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  is  now  well  understood  by  pro- 
gressive farmers.  The  adoption  of  the  silo  in  California  has  doubtless 
been  somewhat  retarded  by  at  least  two  facts:  First,  green  feed  is 
generally  available  in  most  parts  of  the  state  during  all  but  a  few 
months  of  the  year,  and  second,  Indian  corn,  by  far  the  most  important 
American  silage  crop,  is  grown  to  only  a  limited  extent  here  and  many 
farmers  do  not  appreciate  the  possibilities  of  this  crop  under  the  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  most  parts  of  the  state.  Where  Indian  corn  is  not 
successfully  grown,  however,  or  where  farmers  prefer  to  grow  other 
crops,  it  is  still  possible  to  have  the  advantage  of  feeding  silage,  for 
sorghums,  alfalfa,  clover  and  the  small  grains  will,  as  we  shall  see, 
likewise  make  a  good  quality  of  silage  when  properly  handled. 

ADVANTAGES   OF   SILOS. 

The  system  of  making  and  feeding  silage,  often  called  the  siloing 
system,  must  have  some  very  important  advantages  over  hay-making 
or  field-curing  of  forage  crops,  for  it  can  be  truthfully  said  that  it  has 


—  3  — 

largely  revolutionized  the  methods  of  feeding  farm  animals  in  this 
country  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  Some  of  these  advan- 
tages are  readily  seen ;  others  are  more  difficult  to  discern  and  can  only 
be  studied  and  their  importance  determined  through  careful  experi- 
ments. The  dairy  farmer  or  stockman  who  adopts  the  siloing  process 
may  not  be  aware  of  the  special  advantages  of  this  system,  but  is 
doubtless  often  guided  in  his  decision  by  the  enthusiasm  or  favorable 
opinion  of  neighbors  or  agricultural  writers  or  speakers  with  regard 
to  the  merits  of  the  silo.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  consider  briefly 
some  of  the  main  points  of  the  superiority  of  the  siloing  system  under 
the  special  conditions  of  farming  in  this  and  other  western  states. 

1.  Silage  furnishes  a  succulent,  readily  available  feed  of  uniform  quality  which 
is  greatly  relished  by  all  classes  of  farm  animals  and  especially  adapted  for  feeding 
dairy  cows,  beef  cattle  and  sheep. 

2.  Generally  speaking,  the  silo  enables  the  farmer  to  secure  the  largest  possible 
amounts  of  feed  materials  from  a  certain  area  of  land  for  feeding  farm  animals, 
in  the  most  convenient  and  cheapest  manner. 

3.  The  silo  will  preserve  green  feeds,  like  Indian  corn,  sorghum,  grain  forage, 
alfalfa,  clover,  pea  vines,  etc.,  in  a  succulent  condition  for  feeding  at  any  time 
during  the  year ;  it  furnishes  valuable  supplementary  feeds  for  late  summer  and 
early  fall  feeding,  when  pastures  are  likely  to  be  short,  as  well  as  for  winter  feeding 
when  green  feed  is  either  scarce  or  lacking. 

4.  The  silo  makes  farmers  less  dependent  on  weather  conditions  than  when  hay 
is  made,  and  enables  them  to  get  along  with  smaller  barns  or  sheds  than  otherwise, 
since  less  room  is  required  for  storing  feed  in  this  form  than  in  the  form  of  hay, 
or  other  dry  forage. 

5.  The  value  of  succulent  feeds  in  feeding  milk-producing  animals  is  well  under- 
stood ;  silage  also  forms  a  valuable  palatable  feed  for  growing  or  fattening  cattle 
or  sheep,  keeping  them  in  a  thrifty  condition  throughout  the  winter  and  doing  away 
with  the  check  in  production  that  always  occurs  with  changes  from  succulent  to 
dry  feed. 

6.  The  acidity  of  the  silage,  which  comes  largely  from  the  lactic  acid  formed  in 
the  fermentation  of  the  feed,  has  an  important  dietetic  value,  regulating  the  bowels 
and  checking  undesirable  putrefactive  processes  in  the  intestines.  The  favorable 
influence  of  silage  on  the  health  of  animals  that  has  been  commonly  observed  is, 
in  all  probability,  due  partly  to  the  silage  acids  and  partly  to  the  succulence  of 
the  silage. 

LIMITATIONS  OF  THE  SILO. 

The  general  value  of  the  silo  on  American  stock  farms,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  dairy  farmer  and  cattle  man,  has  been  fully  established 
during  the  past  few  decades  through  numerous  carefully  conducted 
feeding  experiments  with  different  classes  of  farm  animals,  as  well 
as  through  practical  feeding  experience.  There  are,  however,  cases 
where  it  is  not  advisable  or  practicable  for  a  farmer  to  build  a  silo, 
and  it  may  be  well  to  state  briefly  in  this  place  the  main  points  of 
limitation  to  the  value  of  the  siloing  system,  in  order  that  these  may  be 
clearly  understood  before  it  is  decided  to  build  a  silo. 

The  most  important  of  these  is  the  cost  of  the  silo  itself  and  of  the 
necessary  equipment,  cutter,  power,  extra  labor,  etc.     According  to  the 


—  4  — 

kind  and  size  of  silo  built,  the  extra  investment  required  in  building 
and  filling  a  silo  will  not  be  less  than  two  hundred  dollars,  and  is 
likely  to  be  double  or  treble  that  amount  on  a  dairy  or  stock  ranch  of 
average  size.  The  investment  in  a  silo  and  necessary  machinery  is 
relatively  high  for  small  silos,  and  the  cost  of  making  and  the  loss  of 
silage  through  spoiling  are  relatively  higher  with  these  than  with 
large  silos.  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  will  pay  a  farmer  to  build  a  silo 
who  has  not  sufficient  stock  to  consume  at  least  50  tons  of  silage  during 
the  season,  and  the  most  economical  results  are  obtained  where  100  tons 
of  silage  or  more  can  be  fed  out  in  a  season. 

It  is  less  essential  to  provide  silage  for  feeding  farm  stock  under 
conditions  where  there  is  no  difficulty  in  making  hay  or  growing  large 
crops  of  roots  than  where  such  conditions  do  not  prevail.  In  localities 
where  green  feed  is  readily  available  throughout  the  year  there  is 
naturally  no  special  need  of  a  silo,  although  some  farmers  may  find  it 
preferable  in  point  of  convenience  and  .economy  also  in  such  cases. 
For  small  herds  of  a  dozen  cattle  or  less,  the  growing  of  roots,  where 
the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  adapted  to  their  culture,  may  prove 
a  more  economical  method  of  supplying  succulence  in  the  rations  fed 
than  making  silage,  unless  a  small  pit  or  bank  silo  can  be  built  which 
may  be  filled  with  some  silage  crop  of  recognized  value.1 

ESSENTIALS    IN    SILO    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  form  of  silo  construction  has  gradually  changed  from  the 
original  one,  a  pit  or  trench  in  the  ground,  to  the  modern  tall  cylin- 
drical silo.  Square  or  rectangular  silos  as  built  prior  to  the  eighties 
are  no  longer  used,  having  been  found  undesirable,  both  on  account  of 
the  difficulty  of  making  good  silage  therein  and  because  of  their  cost. 
There  are  some  essential  points  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  building 
a  silo,  no  matter  of  what  shape  or  material  it  is  built.  As  a  clear 
understanding  of  these  fundamental  requirements  is  important  to  all 
who  intend  to  build  a  silo,  they  will  be  briefly  considered  below.  In 
building  silos  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  following  essentials : 

1.  The  walls  must  he  impervious  to  air  and  water.  The  making  of  silage  con- 
sists largely  in  a  series  of  fermentation  processes.  Bacteria  pass  into  the  silo  with 
the  green  fodder  and  after  a  short  time  begin  to  multiply  there,  favored  by  the 
presence  of  air  and  moisture  and  an  abundance  of  feed  material  in  the  fodder, 
especially  soluble  carbohydrates.  The  bacteria  feed  upon  these  substances  and  break 
them  up  into  acids,  like  lactic  and  acetic  acid,  and  simple  gaseous  components, 
mainly  carbon  dioxide  and  water  vapor.  Considerable  heat  is  evolved  in  this  pro- 
cess. Most  of  the  bacteria  found  in  silage  can  not  live  in  the  absence  of  oxygen, 
and  the  amount  of  air  available  determines,  therefore,  how  far  the  decomposition 
processes  will  run  and  the  resultant  losses  of  nutritive  materials.  When  the  supply 
of  oxygen  in  the  air  spaces  in  the  siloed  mass  is  exhausted,  the  bacteria  die  and 
the  fermentation  processes  cease,  unless  more  air  is  admitted ;  hence,  it  is  important 
that  the  silo  be  air-tight  and  no  air  be  admitted  through  the  silo  wall,  or  at  the 
bottom. 


'Bureau   of  Statistics,  U.    S.   Dept.   Agr.,   Bui.   73,   p.   3' 


The  making  of  silage  depends  also  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  growth  of 
enzymes  in  the  green  tissues  and  on  the  respiration  of  the  plant  cells,  which  con- 
tinues as  long  as  these  are  alive.  The  relative  importance  of  the  various  processes 
concerned  in  the  making  of  silage  has  not  yet  been  fully  established ;  we  know 
definitely,  however,  that  reducing  the  air  supply  in  the  silo  to  a  minimum  is  an 
all-important  factor  in  successful  silage  making,  and  this  is  accomplished  by  solid 
packing  of  green  fodder  and  by  preventing  the  entrance  of  air  from  without. 

The  air  can  not  be  completely  excluded  from  the  silo ;  there  will  always  be 
sufficient  left  in  the  air  spaces  of  the  siloed  mass  to  supply  the  oxygen  necessary 
for  the  run  of  the  changes  involved  in  the  process  of  silage  making.  Unless  the 
amount  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  careful  packing  and  by  providing  an  absolutely 
air-tight  silo  the  losses  of  valuable  feet  components  will  be  abnormally  large,  although 
a  good  quality  of  silage  may  still  be  secured. 

The  silo  wall  must  also  be  water-tight  so  as  not  to  allow  moisture  from  the 
green  fodder  to  escape,  as  the  silage  would  otherwise  dry  out,  and  molds  and 
yeasts  would  be  able  to  grow  therein  and  cause  the  silage  to  spoil. 

2.  The  silo  must  be  deep.  Depth  in  the  silo  is  essential  in  making  silage,  so  as 
to  have  the  mass  under  considerable  pressure ;  this  will  cause  it  to  pack  well  and 
will  leave  as  little  air  as  possible  in  the  interstices  between  the  siloed  fodder,  thus 
reducing  the  losses  of  feed  materials  to  a  minimum.  The  early  silos  built  in  this 
country  and  abroad  were  shallow  structures,  often  not  over  12  to  15  feet  deep. 
Experience  showed  that  it  was  necessary  to  weight  the  fodder  placed  in  these 
silos  heavily  in  order  to  avoid  large  losses  and  the  formation  of  moldy  silage.  In 
modern  tall  silos  no  weighting  is  necessary,  since  the  material  placed  in  the  silo 
packs  sufficiently  to  largely  exclude  the  air  in  the  siloed  mass  and  thus  secures  a 
good  quality  of  silage.  In  the  case  of  deep  silos  the  loss  from  spoiled  silage  on 
the  top  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  silage  stored,  and  a  smaller  loss 
occurs  while  the  silage  is  being  fed  out.  As  the  silage  packs  better  in  a  deep  silo 
than  in  a  shallow  one,  the  former  kind  of  silos  will  furthermore  hold  more  silage 
per  cubic  foot  than  the  latter. 

3.  The  silo  must  have  smooth,  perpendicular  walls,  which  will  allow  the  mass 
to  settle  without  forming  cavities  along  the  walls.  In  a  deep  silo  the  fodder  will 
settle  several  feet  during  the  first  few  days  after  filling.  Any  unevenness  in  the 
wall  will  prevent  the  mass  from  settling  uniformly,  and  air  spaces  thus  formed 
will  cause  the  surrounding  silage  to  spoil. 

4.  The  walls  of  the  silo  must  be  made  rigid  and  strong,  so  as  not  to  spring 
when  the  green  mass  settles.  The  lateral  (outward)  pressure  in  the  silo  during 
the  settling  of  the  mass  is  considerable,  and  increases  with  the  depth  of  the  silage 
at  the  rate  of  about  eleven  pounds  per  square  foot  for  every  foot  in  depth  of 
silage.  Because  of  this  great  pressure  it  is  difficult  to  make  good  silage  in  large 
rectangular  silos,  since  the  walls  of  such  silos  always  spring  more  or  less  under 
the  pressure  of  the  silage  and  this  seldom  keeps  as  well  in  them  as  in  silos  whose 
walls  can  not  spring.  In  the  round  wooden  silo  every  board  acts  as  a  hoop,  and 
as  the  wood  does  not  stretch  much  lengthwise,  there  is  but  little  danger  of  spread- 
ing of  the  walls  in  such  silos.  Both  on  this  account  and  because  of  economy  of 
construction,  silos  of  the  round  type  are  practically  the  only  kind  built  at  the 
present  time  in  this  country. 

SILO   CONSTRUCTION. 

Silos  are,  as  a  general  rule,  tall  structures  built  of  either  wood, 
concrete,  brick,  stone,  or  steel.  In  exceptional  cases,  especially  in  the 
western  and  southwestern  states,  so-called  pit  or  bank  silos  are  built 
in  the  ground  or  in  a  hillside,  respectively.  Either  of  these  silos  is 
cheap  in  first  cost  and  easily  constructed,  but  has  only  a  small  capacity 
and  is  inconvenient  to  feed  from.* 


*Descriptions  of  these   silos  and  directions  for  building  them  will  be  found  in  a. 
number  of  Station  publications  listed  on  page  12. 


—  6  — 

The  best  material  of  which  to  build  a  silo  depends  on  local  prices  and 
will  vary  in  different  localities.  If  the  requirements  of  silo  construc- 
tion previously  stated  are  met,  a  good  quality  of  silage  may  be  obtained 
in  any  kind  of  silo,  whether  built  of  wood,  concrete,  steel,  etc.,  and 
no  silo  will  furnish  good  silage  unless  built  in  accordance  with  the 
general  principles  laid  down.  Silos  with  thin,  flimsy  walls,  or  built 
of  plain  staves  admit  considerable  air  to  the  siloed  mass,  and  although 
cheap  in  first  cost  are  the  most  expensive  silos,  owing  to  the  excessive 
fermentative  losses  that  occur  therein. 

Good  wooden  silos,  if  properly  cared  for,  will  last  for  a  long  period, 
perhaps  20  years  or  more,  while  concrete  silos  under  similar  conditions 


Fig.  2.     A  steel  silo. 

may  be  counted  on  to  last  almost  indefinitely.  The  lining  of  wooden 
silos  must  be  painted  with  hot  coal  tar,  or  special  preservative  mix- 
tures to  prevent  decay,  while  concrete  silos  may  be  preserved  by  an 
application  of  a  pure  cement  wash  once  every  two  or  three  years. 

Size  of  silo.  The  size  of  the  silo  to  be  built  must  be  determined  by 
the  number  of  animals  to  which  silage  will  be  fed,  and  the  length  of 
the  feeding  season.  As  there  is  danger  of  silage  spoiling  if  the  silo  is 
emptied  too  slowly,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  a  layer  of  about  two  inches 
daily  from  the  entire  surface  of  silage  during  the  summer  months,  and 
from  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  cold  water.  About  five 
square  feet  of  such  a  layer  will  furnish  sufficient  silage  for  a  cow  or  a 
steer  per  day,  hence  the  diameter  of  silos  to  be  built  should  be  approxi- 


—  7  — 

mately  as  follows,  if  silage  is  to  be  fed  during  a  period  of  six  months : 
For  a  herd  of  sixteen  cows,  ten  feet;  twenty- four  cows,  about  twelve 
feet;  thirty  cows,  fourteen  feet;  forty  cows,  sixteen  feet;  fifty  cows, 
eighteen  feet;  sixty  cows,  twenty  feet;  one  hundred  cows,  twenty-five 
feet. 

The  following  table  shows  the  capacities  of  cylindrical  silos  of  a 
diameter  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  and  a  height  of  twenty  to  forty  feet : 

CAPACITY   OF    ROUND    SILOS. 

Approximate  Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Silos,  for  Well-Matured  Corn  Silage,  in  Tons. 


Height  of  silo 

Inside  diameter  of 

silo,  feet 

inside,  feet 

»  1 

n 

12 

13 

14   | 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

20  

30 
33 
36 
40 
44 
48 
53 
58 
64 
70 
75 

36 
41 
45 

50 
54 
58 
66 
73 
82 
80 
98 

45 

50 

55 

60 

66 

75 

84 

94 

105 

114 

121 

51 
57 

64 

71 

79 

86 

94 

102 

110 

119 

129 

60 

66 

73 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

22  

76 
85 
94 
102 
110 
118 
131 
139 
151 
165 

87 
95 
103 
111 
120 
131 
143 
155 
167 
180 

24  

104 
116 
126 
136 
148 
162 
176 
190 
204 

120 
130 
140 
150 
162 
175 
190 
212 
228 

122 
137 
152 
168 
184 
200 
218 
236 
255 

26 

155 

28  

170 

30 

185 

32  

200 

34 

217 

36  

235 

38    - 

256 

40  

279 

On  account  of  the  difficulty  of  handling  the  silage  from  very  wide 
silos  it  is  not  to  be  recommended  to  build  silos  of  larger  diameter  than 
twenty  feet;  it  is  also  difficult  to  feed  out  the  silage  rapidly  enough 
from  very  wide  silos  to  prevent  considerable  losses  through  decay  of 
the  surface  layer,  except  in  cases  of  very  large  herds. 

The  figures  for  the  capacities  of  silos  given  refer  to  Indian  corn  cut 
when  nearly  mature.  Somewhat  larger  quantities  can  be  put  in  of 
immature  corn  or  of  sweet  sorghum,  and  less  of  dry  corn,  alfalfa,  grain 
sorghums  and  similar  crops  that  do  not  pack  well.  If  cut  when  nearly 
ripe  the  grain  sorghums  will  occupy  at  least  one-third  more  space  than 
Indian  corn  cut  at  the  usual  time,  and  the  capacity  of  a  silo  for  these 
crops  would  then  be  decreased  in  this  ratio  from  the  figures  given  in 
the  table. 

The  silos  commonly  built  in  this  state  are  of  two  kinds:  Wooden, 
stave  or  so-called  re-saw  silos,  and  concrete  silos,  wTith  solid  reinforced 
walls,  or  built  of  cement  blocks. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  manufactured  silos  on  the  market  for 
which  great  claims  of  cheapness  and  general  excellence  are  made. 
These  can  only  be  recommended  when  they  conform  to  the  require- 
ments for  silo  structures  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages.  Besides 
the  silo  types  described  below  there  is  one  kind  which  would  seem  to 
possess  decided  merit  under  the  conditions  existing  in  this  state,  viz., 


the  steel  silo.  So  far  as  is  known  none  of  these  silos  have  as  yet  been 
built  here;  their  relatively  high  cost  will,  however,  prevent  their 
general  adoption. 

The  stave  silos  are,  as  a  rule,  put  up  by  manufacturers  who  make 
a  special  business  of  silo  construction.  As  these  furnish  detailed  build- 
ing directions  in  all  cases  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  explain  their  con- 
struction here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  they  are  generally  built  of  tongued 
and  grooved  staves,  six  inches  wide  and  two  inches  thick,  with  edges 


Fig.  3.     Stave  silos  at  the   University  Farm.     Diameter 
12  ft.,  height  36  ft.,  capacity  about  100  tons  each. 

beveled  to  conform  to  the  circle  of  the  silo.  Common  sizes  built  are 
twelve  feet  in  diameter,  thirty-six  feet  high  (105  tons  capacity)  ;  sixteen 
feet  in  diameter,  thirty-six  feet  high  (155  tons  capacity). 

Stave  silos  are  easily  and  quickly  built  and  cost  about  $3.00  per  ton 
capacity  for  small  or  medium  sizes.  Like  all  other  silos  they  should 
be  built  on  a  solid  concrete  foundation  going  down  into  the  ground  a 
couple  of  feet  and  the  bottom  should  be  tamped  thoroughly  and 
covered  with  a  layer  of  good  concrete,  2  to  3  inches  thick,  in  order 


—  9  — 

to  keep  out  vermin  and  secure  good  silage  clear  to  the  bottom.  It  is  also 
advisable  to  provide  silos  32  feet  tall  or  more,  with  a  drain.  This  will 
prevent  spoiling  of  the  bottom  layer  of  the  silage  through  silage  juice 
or  water  standing  in  the  silo,  in  the  case  of  very  green  silage  crops, 
or  where  considerable  water  is  added  to  the  siloed  fodder.  The  silo  is 
preferably  provided  with  a  roof  and  a  chute  extending  from  the  top 
door  to  about  eight  feet  from  the  ground  through  which  the  silage 
may  be  emptied. 

The  re-saw  silo  is  a  modification  of  a  type  of  round  wooden  silo 
originally  constructed  by  the  late  Professor  F.  H.  King  at  the  Wis- 


Fig.  4.     Resaw  silo  in  process  of  construction  at  the 
University  Farm.     Stave  silos  to  the  right, 

consin  Experiment  Station  in  189 11  and  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Wisconsin  or  the  King  silo.  It  is  built  of  one-half  or  three-eighths- 
inch  boards,  six  inches  wide,  nailed  horizontally  to  upright  2x4  stud- 
dings  placed  12  to  18  inches  apart.  In  the  original  Wisconsin  silo  three 
thicknesses  of  three-eighths  inch  sheeting  were  nailed  on  the  inside, 
with  two  thicknesses  of  acid-proof  building  paper  between,  and  on  the 
outside  were  put  one  thickness  of  sheeting,  one  of  tar  felt  and  one  of 
clapboards.  In  this  state  the  outside  covering  is,  as  a  rule,  omitted, 
and  only  two  thicknesses  of  one-half  inch  stuff,  with  one  or  two  layers 


1Wisconsin  bulletin   2! 


—  10  — 

of  building  paper  between,  are  nailed  on  the  inside  of  the  studs,  care 
being  taken  that  the  boards  break  joints. 

These  silos  have  the  advantage  that  they  can  be  readily  built  by  a 
carpenter  with  unskilled  helpers  and  are  Gheap  in  first  cost.  They 
have  given  good  satisfaction  in  most  cases  and  appear  to  be  in  good 
condition  even  after  having  been  filled  several  times.  But  little 
definite  information  has  been  secured  so  far  as  to  the  losses  of  feed 
materials  sustained  in  these  thin-walled  silos,  but  from  the  evidence 
at  hand  it  seems  clear  that  these  are  considerably  larger  than  in  the 
case  of  silos  with  more  solid,  practically  air-tight  walls.  Especially 
in  the  case  of  silos  of  small  diameters,  twelve  feet  or  less,  the  building 
of  these  silos  is  a  particular  and  slow  job,  and  the  cost  of  construction 
will  often  bring  the  total  cost  of  the  silo  up  to  above  that  of  a  care- 
fully built  stave  silo.  With  our  present  knowledge  of  silo  construc- 
tion and  under  the  conditions  prevailing  in  this  state  this  type  of 
silo  can  only  be  recommended  where  lumber  is  cheap  and  where  a 
farmer  can  build  the  silo  largely  with  unskilled  labor  and  must  build 
it  as  cheaply  as  possible.  By  placing  another  layer  of  building  paper 
and  half -inch  boards  on  the  inside,  the  losses  of  feed  materials  during 
the  siloing  process  would  doubtless  be  reduced,  as  it  would  lessen  the 
danger  of  introduction  of  air  through  the  wall,  but  it  would,  at  the 
same  time,  also  be  likely  to  bring  the  cost  cf  the  silo  up  to  that  of 
other  types. 

A  re-saw  silo  of  110  tons  capacity  built  by  a  Yolo  County  dairy 
farmer  in  1913  is  described  as  follows  i1 

"The  material  used  in  the  construction  of  our  silo  consists  of  two  layers  of  one- 
half  inch  by  eight  inch  Redwood,  sized  and  surfaced  on  one  side,  with  two  layers 
of  building  paper  between.  The  studding  is  2  by  4  pine  and  placed  twelve  inches 
apart.  No  bottom  was  put  in,  as  we  have  been  informed  that  this  is  not  necessary. 
The  silo  is  built  on  a  concrete  foundation  twelve  inches  deep  and  ten  inches  thick. 
This  is  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  ground  making  the  form.  On  top  of 
this  is  layed  a  circle  sawed  from  2  by  12  redwood,  and  to  which  the  studding  is 
spiked.  For  the  top  of  the  silo  a  circle  is  cut  from  1  by  12  redwood,  using  two 
thicknesses.     The  siding  is  well  nailed  and  care  was  used  in  breaking  joints. 

"One  carpenter  and  two  unskilled  laborers  built  this  silo  for  a  total  cost  of 
$200.00.  Our  siding  cost  $28.00  per  M,  half-inch  being  figured  as  inch.  We  used 
more  studding  than  is  used  in  many  cases.  Many  put  them  18  inches  to  24  inches 
apart.  The  size  of  silo  is  14  by  32  feet,  and  we  believe  holds  100  to  110  tons.  We 
believe  that  we  could  reduce  this  cost  a  little  in  building  another. 
"We  give  below  a  list  of  the  material  used  in  one  of  these ,  silos : 

2800  square  feet  redwood  resaw. 

44  pieces  2x3x32  pine. 

8  pieces  1x12x12  redwood. 

4  pieces  2x12x12  redwood. 

3000  square  feet  building  paper. 

100  pounds  7-penny  box  nails. 

10  pounds  spikes. 

10  sacks    (2£  barrels)    cement. 

2  yards  gravel. 

Labor  5  days,  4  men." 


'Private  communication. 


—  11  — 

Concrete  silos.  When  carefully  built  these  are  probably  more  satis- 
factory silo  structures  than  those  made  of  any  other  material.  They 
require  a  minimum  amount  of  attention,  are  fire  and  vermin-proof 
and  with  proper  care  will,  as  already  suggested,  be  likely  to  last 
almost  indefinitely.  To  offset  these  advantages  they  are  rather  expen- 
sive in  first  cost,  viz,  on  the  average,  $3.00  to  $4.00  per  ton  capacity, 
and  call  for  more  care  in  their  construction  than  most  other  kinds  of 
silos.     According  to  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station,1  the  solid-wall, 


Fig.   5.     A    Napa    County   concrete   silo. 

reinforced  concrete  silo  "will  give  more  efficient  service  for  a  dollar 
invested  than  any  other  above  ground  silo  on  the  market  today." 

Complete  instructions  for  the  construction  of  concrete  silos  will  be 
found  in  the  bulletins  published  by  the  respective  cement  manufac- 
turers which  may  be  obtained  free  on  application.2 


bulletin  200,  August,  1914. 

2Bulletin  21,  "Concrete  Silos,"  published  bv  the  Association  of  American  Portland 
Cement  Manufacturers,  Philadelphia;  "Concrete  Silos,"  published  bv  the  Universal 
Portland  Cement  Company,  Chicago ;  see,  also,  Farmers'  Bulletin  589,  "Home-Made 
Silos,"  published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  July, 
1914,  pages  9-30,  and  Kansas  Agricultural  College  Extension  Bulletin  IV,  No.  6, 
Cement  Silo  Construction,  May,  1912,  79  pp. 


—  12  — 

There  are  three  different  kinds  of  concrete  silos  made,  the  so-called 
monolithic  or  solid-wall  silo,  having  a  solid  concrete  wall  reinforced 
with  steel  rods  or  bars,  or  woven  wire;  those  with  hollow  wall,  and 
those  built  of  hollow  cement  blocks.  Under  the  climatic  conditions 
of  our  state  the  solid-wall  monolithic  silo  offers  ample  protection  and 
is  the  form  of  cement  silo  commonly  built. 

Silos  are  also  built  of  other  kinds  of  material  than  those  mentioned 
in  the  preceding,  viz,  of  brick,  stone,  hollow  tile  or  steel,  but  these  are 
hardly  of  sufficient  importance  under  our  conditions  to  call  for  more 
than  mere  mention.     Persons  interested  in  building  silos  of  these  or 


Fig.   6. 


A  battery  of  four  concrete  silos  in  Kern  County.     Diameter 
of   silos   20   ft.,   height    60   ft. 


other  materials  will  have  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  necessary 
information  as  to  their  use  in  silo  construction  by  referring  to  bulletins 
recently  published  by  Experiment  Stations,  copies  of  which  can,  as 
a  rule,  be  secured  on  application  to  the  directors  of  the  respective 
stations.1 


^Station  publications  on  silo  construction : 

Colorado  bulletin  200,  Silos  and  Silage  in  Colorado   (Ft.  Collins,  Colo.). 
Iowa  bulletin  141,  Modern  Silo  Construction   (Ames,  Iowa). 
Kansas  extension  bulletin  VI,  No.  11,  Underground  Silos   (Manhattan,  Kan.). 
Oklahoma  circular  33,   Four  Cheap   Silos    (Stillwater,   Okla.). 
Missouri  circular  67,  How  to  Build  a  Gurler  Silo   (Columbia,  Mo.). 
Nebraska   bulletin    138,    Silo   Construction    in   Nebraska    (Lincoln,   Neb.). 
South  Dakota  bulletin  154,  The  Pit  Silo   (Brookings,  S.  D.). 
North  Carolina  circular  1,  Silo  Facts   (Raleigh,  N.  C. ). 
Georgia  bulletin   110,   Silos  and  Silage    (Experiment,  Ga.). 
Louisiana  bulletin   143,   Silos  and  Ensilage    (Baton  Rouge,   La.). 
Farmers'   Bulletin   589,   Home-made  Silos    (Washington,   D.   C ) . 

See  also  Modern  Silage  Methods,  published  by  the   Silver  Mfg.   Co.,   Salem,   Ohio, 
and  mailed  by  them  on  receipt  of  ten  cents. 


—  13  — 

The  best  material  for  building  a  silo  depends  on  a  number  of  condi- 
tions that  vary  greatly,  like  local  market  prices  of  different  silo 
materials,  amount  of  money  that  is  available  far  this  purpose,  etc. 
Farmers  who  are  considering  the  question  of  building  a  silo  may  be 
able  to  determine  from  the  discussions  given  in  the  preceding  the 
relative  merits  of  the  various  types  of  silos.  A  satisfactory  and  more 
or  less  permanent  silo  can  be  built  of  any  of  the  materials  given, 
provided  due  care  is  taken  in  the  construction.  The  bulletins  on  silo 
construction  published  by  the  Experiment  Stations  may  be  profitably 
consulted  before  the  silo  is  built.  Silos  erected  by  farmers  living  in 
the  same  locality  may  also  be  examined  and  advantage  thus  taken  of 
the  experience  of  others. 

SILOS  AT  THE   UNIVERSITY  FARM. 

The  following  silos  are  at  the  present  time  in  use  at  the  University 
Farm,  in  the  order  of  their  time  of  construction : 

1.  A  concrete  silo  built  in  1910  in  connection  with  the  dairy  barn  ;  dimensions, 
diameter  16  ft.  and  35  ft.  high,  capacity  150  tons,  solid  cement  walls,  heavily 
reinforced  with  metal  lath,  wired  with  baling  wire  to  upright  iron  rods ;  wall  3£ 
inches  thick  below  and  2£  inches  thick  toward  the  top. 

2.  Remco  stave  silo  donated  to  the  University  by  Redwood  Manufacturers  Com- 
pany, San  Francisco ;  built  April,  1914,  diameter  12  ft.,  36  ft.  high,  capacity  about 
100  tons ;  built  of  plain  2x6  redwood  staves  with  patent  sliding  doors  and  roof. 
Cost  of  the  silo,  $307.30. 

3.  Ideal  Green  Feed  silo,  manufactured  by  the  De  Laval  Dairy  Supply  Company, 
San  Francisco,  same  dimensions  as  preceding  silo,  and  of  similar  construction, 
except  that  the  staves  are  tongue  and  grooved ;  the  doors  are  interchangeable  and 
afe  simple  and  substantial  in  construction.  A  ladder  is  nailed  along  the  silo  doors 
to  the  top  of  the  silo ;  built  in  June,  1914.  The  cost  of  the  silo  complete,  with 
foundation,  $285,00. 

4.  Re-saw  silo,  built  by  the  University  Farm  carpenters  in  August,  1914,  from 
two  thicknesses  of  §-inch  redwood  lumber,  nailed  horizontally  to  2x4  studs  placed 
12  inches  apart,  care  being  taken  to  break  joints.  A  layer  of  building  paper  was 
nailed  between  the  boards.  The  silo  was  provided  with  similar  doors  and  ladder 
as  the  preceding  silo.  The  cost  of  the  silo,  with  foundation  and  roof,  was  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Ideal  Green  Feed  Silo,  viz,  $284.50.      (See  Figs.  3,  4  and  7.) 

The  concrete  silo  has  been  filled  every  season  for  the  past  five  years, 
while  the  three  wooden  silos  built  last  year  were  filled  once,  except  in 
the  case  of  silo  No.  2,  which  was  filled  twice  last  season,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  table  showing  silage  crops  for  the  season  1914. 


14  — 


© 

Q 

O 

CD 


z 

a 

w 

o 

D 

d 

- 

03 

c 

<j 

■W 

o5 

- 

«w 

n 

o 

O 

o 

60 

02 

o 

o 

O 

a 

a 

o 

hi 

<X) 

O 

0 

CD 

a 

< 

cd 

3 

a 

•      CO 

_J 

ft 

O^ 

05 

rS 

CD 
0) 

02  ,£J      • 

CO 

p 

U 

^  ,g  o 
*   a)   3 

M 

S 

u-    f= 

fl 

a 

as? 

a 

cd 

t-i          o 

O  £  « 

CD 

-*-> 

g 

•/. 

o 

M?9 

cj 

.2  a   o 

o 

be 

co 

02    o  02 

add 

o 

CM 

(X; 

CD 

o     . 

i-3  k»  h  • 

-/> 

O  ° 

;e  ripe. 
,  quite 

te    ripe 
due  to  3- 
h  wind, 
green    in 
ed  in  gen- 
and  dry; 
tty. 

S 

-d 

£      a 

*3     ~  -^        cu  m  d 

s 

CD 

M 

la  *~  ss&2§2& 

£3        cd  'E       i>   03  "d  =3  ft  £  £ 

s> 

o     > 

Q           03 

CO 

oo       o 

CM                -* 

»hg 

"tf 

CM          i-l 

r-l                  H 

o  S  o 

oft*- 

€/3- 

8 

CO          t>- 

as       cx> 

8       £ 

n 

CO 

lO          CO 

O                   OS 

in 

£ 

€©■ 

1—1 

c 

H 

^ 

CM          CM 

O                  iO 

"cS 

rt< 

CO          ,-t 

CO                         TJ1 

O 

1C 

y-\          00 

CM                lO 

H 

OS 

CO              Tf 

O               1^ 

CO 

^           t^ 

O                  CO 

CM 

OS          O 

T-l                            OO 

^ 

h- 

os       r- 

to            >o 

CO 

t^          CO 

tH                     OO 

H 

"3 

CM 

1—1 

3S     8 

co             co 

o 

en 

o 
U 

3 

£ 

•<rH            -*Ji 

CO                no 

en 

O 

O          lO 

s         e 

<D 

t^ 

H            CO 

o 

o 

t—                T*l 

co             ot 

w 

t-H           tH 

CM                   tH 

m 

CO          CM 

o           co 

c 

■^ 

o         t^ 

l^           ^ 

g 

,_i 

OO          00 

CM                   rH 

OS 

n:>       t*i 

OO                  CO 

e©- 

i— 1 

,  c 

CM 

Ti-S 

eu 

o       <u 

^                   S 

*-"  ti 

a 

a      a 

M   ^ 

o 

o      o 

CO                  o 

fc 

^      ^ 

co          }Z5 

TS 

^f 

T*t                T*l 

>*           ^ 

m 

"^               "^. 

•^               tis. 

to 

OS 

CO           Oi 

t^                 O 

& 

CM 

CM           -^, 

^—1                    H 

^.      as 

^-                   ^>- 

w 

*tfl 

OO 

<3l               o 

o 

■t— 1 

o3 

rJH         ■># 

^               rf 

t-1                  tH 

a 

-^                  ^^ 

lO          CO 

CM               OS 

o 

cm        cq 

CM                  i— 1 

W 

rf                  -rfi 

!  ^    I 

ill    i      §   i 

A  °    ! 

°s    !       ^    ! 

CP                    03       < 

>?  03      ! 

p. 

o 

2  ^    ' 

^  i    S~ 

CD 

C  3    ! 

>»   !      -^ 

aS 

?H 

03Q       ; 

Th                   9    CP 

3 

c 

3 

0 

-P 

OS 

03^    03 

IIS 

1:3  ^       ^  *s 
S2      "S 

•W                 (J; 

U                 4^^ 

« 
m 

•«    C3^ 

a  d       P<3 
Q          02 

<3 

^M 

N'lll 

nber 

^ 

CM  CO 

T*<                          O 

to  c  s-j  be 

^  R  o+-> 


"^   0)  ^  C3 

0  ?       &0 


Ci>  cd 


CP  03 


If       SB 
V   CC  O 

COO        ° 

o-nH  a  >> 

+jo3  c  p 
c^  co .5 


CD 


tc 


m 


13  cd 
03-fl 


3 
O 

G 
w 

c 


C3.S 

0)  R  .. 

Oj  «  cd    , 

^"co 

^5"  O 

>>0  rrt 
CD  I  -^  d 
-m  JD  j-  " 

ph  b  d-S 
8§SS 


W  (V)  -W 


•^  <D 


^'Sb 


<DT3tM   7   Krrj 
•d    ..    O  ^   CO  O 

co  QJ      !d      b 


d§w 

CD        d 


.d  d 


'bo   . 

flCM 


_,"  o    ro  a  . 

d        2  „  <D  +J  CD 
"5        "-"      .   d      .  f>   CD 

^l0^Mad 

cod  CD  CO  ^      o  0 


co  d 


d  ?>  >», 


ssdbd 

^5  b  d  CD        d 
^5         CD        -M  CD 

<u      °°ftd      ^ 

7^^§^d^ 

•^     O     O     5  r->  T3  4J 

-«cd|^„^d 
S  g  d  to  £  ft  ft  o 

S2     tn  ^  >  w 

CO  d  CD<W  O  CD  CD  cd 

""  U  -C  o  d  k  d  fe 
~        ^      cd  o  ^ 
<!  ,2  <D  to  ^  ft-r  m 

-■§88    ^  . 

SScD-SftTiS^ 

-dlftlll 

^cdQ-0-5    ft 


cd  ""^2 
^  b  co 


-(       o 


cd-M 

d  d 


w    d 
ftC   2   StJ  CO    -H 

cd  cd  "      MM  cj  o 

cd^^d+^cocd." 
,    5  Ph  cd  cd!>  d 

ft^d^g^^S 
o  tn  cd^  -3       t,  o 

^     f-H  ^H     g 

^r§0.2Sd^d 
dedo-cdo^d 

||'§o|l|* 

«h     dftg     gd 

^         v;  tn  Qj 
H->t3  h00^4) 
I         CD^j         >  X*  U 


u 


SaS^H^S-codcd^^^lS0 


ft'dH^d  £h5£ 


—  15  — 

DISCUSSION    OF   SILAGE    CROPS. 

Indian  corn  is  grown  for  forage  purposes  to  only  a  limited  extent  in 
this  state,  partly  because  other  forage  crops  do  better  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  state,  like  alfalfa,  grain  sorghums  or  root  crops,  and  partly 
because  many  farmers  are  unfamiliar  with  the  culture  of  the  crop  or 
are  averse  to  growing  it.  Indian  corn  is,  however,  pre-eminently  the 
great  American  silage  crop  and  is,  generally  speaking,  better  adapted 
for  siloing  processes  than  any  other  field  crop.  The  reasons  for  this 
are  easily  seen.  The  thick  stems  and  broad  leaves  of  the  corn  plant 
pack  well  in  the  silo  when  cut ;  corn  is  rich  in  starch  and  other  non- 
saccharine  carbohydrates  which  insure  silage  of  a  moderate  acidity, 
and  it  is  relatively  low  in  protein  substances  so  that  the  danger  of 
undesirable  fermentations  in  the  silo  is  removed. 

Corn  is  planted  thicker  when  grown  for  silage  than  for  grain  and 
a  larger  proportion  of  nutrients  are,  as  a  result,  obtained  in  the  stalks 
in  the  former  case.  The  closeness  of  planting  varies  somewhat  in 
different  sections  according  to  soil  and  climate.  The  common  practice 
in  growing  corn  for  grain  is  to  plant  in  hills  three  and  one-half  feet 
apart  both  ways ;  when  intended  for  silage  it  is  generally  planted  in 
drills  three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  with  stalks  eight  to  ten  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  This  will  secure  a  fair  proportion  of  ears  and  a 
maximum  yield  of  feed  materials  in  the  crop  taken  off  the  land. 

Experiments  conducted  with  regard  to  the  effect  of  different  methods 
of  planting  corn  have  shown  that  the  yields  obtained  are  not  materially 
influenced  by  the  distribution  of  the  seed  so  long  as  the  amount  of  seed 
per  acre  remains  the  same.  The  question  of  planting  corn  in  hills  or 
drills  may,  therefore,  be  decided  wholly  on  the  score  of  convenience 
of  cultivating  and  harvesting  the  crop. 

In  growing  corn  for  the  silo  a  variety  should  be  selected  that  will 
mature  in  the  particular  locality  given  and  that  will  yield  a  maximum 
amount  of  dry  matter  to  the  acre.  Dent  varieties,  like  Reid's  Yellow 
Dent,  Learning,  Minn.  113,  or  U.  S.  160,  will  produce  large  yields 
of  both  grain  and  forage  under  our  conditions.  As  the  quality  of 
silage  made  from  well-matured  corn  is  better  than  that  from  rather 
immature  corn,  the  best  practice  is  to  allow  the  grain  to  nearly  ripen 
before  the  corn  is  cut  for  the  silo.  This  is  advantageous  also  because 
of  the  rapid  increase  in  the  yield  of  feed  materials  in  the  corn  plant 
during  the  last  stages  of  the  growing  period  when  the  kernels  begin 
to  harden.  If  the  grain  is  fully  matured  by  the  time  the  silo  can  be 
filled,  a  quantity  of  water  added  to  the  blower  as  the  corn  goes  into  the 
silo,  or  to  the  mixture  in  the  silo,  will  secure  a  good  quality  of  silage. 
Frosted  corn,  if  siloed  promptly,  can  likewise  be  made  into  good  silage 
by  a  liberal  application  of  water  in  the  same  way. 


—  16  — 

The  amount  of  silage  that  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre  of  corn  will 
vary  with  the  fertility  of  the  land,  the  season,  and  the  care  used  in 
growing  the  crop,  from  six  tons,  or  below,  to  twenty  tons  in  exceptional 
cases.  A  fifty-bushel  crop  will  yield  eight  to  twelve  tons  of  silage  per 
acre,  depending  on  the  amount  of  foliage  and  stalks  that  accompany 
the  ears.1  The  general  practice  adopted  by  farmers  in  the  corn  belt 
is  to  silo  the  corn  ' '  ears  and  all " ;  the  entire  crop  is  run  through  a 
cutter  and  filled  into  the  silo  where  it  is  evenly  mixed  and  tramped 
down  carefully,  especially  along  the  silo  wall.  Carefully  conducted 
experiments  have  shown  that  this  method  of  handling  the  crop  is 
more  economical  and  convenient  than  to  husk  and  grind  the  corn 
separately  and  feed  it  with  silage  made  from  the  corn  fodder  or  stover. 
One  acre  of  corn  silage  made  from  the  whole  corn  plant,  including  the 
ears,  has  been  found  to  have  a  similar  feeding  value  as  one  and  one- 
quarter  acres  of  silage  made  from  corn  fodder  fed  with  the  correspond- 
ing amount  of  ground  corn. 

Sweet  sorghum  has  been  highly  recommended  as  a  silage  crop  under 
western  conditions  on  account  of  its  being  more  drought  resistant  than 
Indian  corn.  It  will  give  better  yields  than  the  latter  crop  in  regions 
where  the  rainfall  is  too  low  or  too  irregular  for  growing  a  good  crop 
of  corn.  The  sorghums  are  less  liable  to  damage  by  insects  than  corn 
and  remain  green  far  into  the  fall  so  that  they  may  be  siloed  consider- 
ably later  than  this  crop.  Yields  of  green  sorghum  of  twenty  tons 
may  be  secured  on  fertile  land,  or  one-half  again  as  much  as  a  good 
crop  of  corn.  In  making  silage  from  sorghum  it  is  important  that  it 
be  harvested  late  when  the  seed  has  become  hard,  as  it  will  make  a  very 
acid  silage  if  cut  at  an  earlier  stage  of  growth.  Cut  at  the  time  stated 
it  will  make  a  good  quality  of  silage  of  nearly  similar  feeding  value 
and  palatability  as  Indian  corn  silage.  The  two  most  important  vari- 
eties adapted  to  forage  and  silage  are  Early  Amber  and  Orange. 

The  grain  sorghums,  or  non-saccharine  sorghums  (kafir,  milo,  Egyp- 
tian corn,  feterita,  etc.),  are  used  for  silage  to  a  limited  extent  in  this 
and  other  western  states.  They  make  a  good  silage  if  cut  when  the 
seed  is  ripe,  and  it  is  relished  nearly  as  well  by  cattle  as  Indian  corn 
silage.  It  is  eaten  in  somewhat  smaller  amounts  than  this,  e.  g.,  for 
dairy  cows  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  per  head  daily  is  an  average 
feed.  The  Kansas  station  found  that  kafir  silage  ranked  second  to 
corn  silage  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows  and  that  it  is  better  than  sorghum 
silage  for  the  production  of  milk.2  In  dry,  hot  sections  where  the 
grain  sorghums  give  relatively  large  yields  and  where  Indian  corn 
can  not  be  successfully  grown,  these  crops  will  doubtless  assume  great 
importance  in  the  future  as  silage  crops  on  dairy  and  other  stock 

farmers'   Bulletin  578. 
2Kansas  circular  28. 


—  17  — 

farms.  In  trials  at  the  University  Farm  the  largest  yields  have  so 
far  been  obtained  from  dwarf  milo,  feterita,  and  brown  durra  (Egyp- 
tian corn),  in  the  order  given. 

Alfalfa  is  only  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  silage  crop.  There  is 
ordinarily  no  difficulty  in  making  it  into  good  hay  under  the  condi- 
tions present  in  the  western  states  where  this  crop  grows  to  best 
advantage  and  is  of  the  greatest  economic  importance.  It  is,  however, 
made  into  silage  by  many  farmers,  especially  in  case  of  the  first  and 
last  cuttings.  Since  foxtail  (Hordeum  murinum)  is  often  a  serious 
pest  in  alfalfa  fields  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  the  first  crop 
is  siloed  by  some  farmers,  and  the  foxtail  thus  rendered  harmless;  the 
beards  remain  soft  in  the  silage  and  do  not  cause  trouble  to  the 
animals  eating  it,  as  is  generally  the  case  when  this  crop  is  made  into 
hay,  especially  if  cut  rather  late  when  the  foxtail  heads  are  nearly 
ripe.  Silage  from  such  weedy  alfalfa  will  be  of  good  quality  if  put 
up  in  accordance  with  the  directions  given  and  is  often  better  than 
that  from  pure  alfalfa.  The  last  crop  of  alfalfa  is  also  sometimes 
siloed  in  the  region  mentioned,  owing  to  the  rainy  weather  that  is 
likely  to  prevail  at  this  time,  rendering  it  difficult  to  make  hay  from 
this  crop.1 

If  run  through  a  cutter  and  siloed  as  soon  as  possible  after  mowing 
before  it  has  wilted  much,  and  carefully  tramped  down  in  the  silo, 
it  will  make  a  good  aromatic  silage,  well  relished  by  dairy  cows,  steers, 
sheep  and  other  farm  animals  after  they  have  become  accustomed 
to  it.  Like  all  silage  made  from  leguminous  crops  it  has  a  strong 
and  less  agreeable  flavor  than  corn  silage,  owing  to  the  butyric  acid 
formed  therein,  but  stock  soon  learn  to  like  it.  It  has  not  been 
shown,  however,  that  alfalfa  silage  has  a  higher  feeding  value  than 
corn  silage,  ton  for  ton,  although  it  is  considerably  richer  in  protein 
and  generally  contains  more  dry  matter  per  ton  than  the  latter  silage. 

Clover  and  other  legumes  are  not  often  used  as  silage  crops  for  the 
reasons  stated  above,  and  when  so  used  it  is  generally  under  similar 
conditions  as  those  just  given  for  alfalfa,  when  they  can  not  very  well 
be  cured  into  hay.  As  the  legumes  have  a  large  proportion  of  leaves 
and  tender  stems,  they  dry  out  rapidly  and  must  be  run  through  a 
cutter  and  siloed  as  soon  as  possible  after  being  mowed.  Clover,  like 
alfalfa,  is  cut  for  the  silo  when  about  one-third  of  the  plants  are  in 
full  bloom,  or  before  the  first  single  heads  are  beginning  to  wilt. 
According  to  trials  conducted  at  several  experiment  stations,  the 
largest  yields  of  dry  matter  and  of  all  feed  components,  except  fiber, 
are  obtained  from  clover  when  it  is  cut  at  this  stage.     If  the  cutting 


'See  Circular  124  of  this  Station,  Alfalfa  Silage  for  Fattening  Steers. 


—  18  — 

lias  been  delayed  beyond  this  stage,  the  safer  plan  is  to  add  water  to 
the  clover,  up  to  a  ton  per  ton  of  green  feed,  either  as  it  is  elevated 
into  the  silo,  or  in  the  silo  itself  after  each  load  or  half-day  run. 

The  losses  of  feed  materials  in  the  siloing  processes  in  the  case  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  etc.,  are  but  slightly  larger  than  for  corn,  so  far  as 
can  be  judged  from  the  limited  data  at  hand  regarding  this  point. 
When  put  up  in  the  manner  stated  in  an  air-tight  silo,  the  necessary 
loss  of  dry  matter  in  these  crops  will  not  be  likely  to  exceed  10  per 
cent.  This  is  a  much  lower  loss  than  that  sustained  in  making  hay 
from  alfalfa  (and  probably  from  clover  and  other  leafy  legumes  as 
well),  on  account  of  the  unavoidable  and  often  considerable  abrasion 


Fig.   7.      Silos   at   the   University    Farm.      Concrete   silo   to   right, 
connected  with  dairy  barn ;   wooden  silos  at  extreme  left. 

of  leaves  and  tender  parts  in  the  process  of  hay-making.  This  loss 
has  been  estimated  at  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  hay  crop,  as  a  minimum, 
and  as  high  as  60  per  cent  in  the  extreme  cases.  Aside  from  the  losses 
sustained  through  abrasion,  rain  storms  may  reduce  the  value  of  the 
hay  by  one-half.  The  losses  from  either  of  these  sources  are  avoided 
in  preserving  the  crop  in  the  silo,  and  in  their  place  a  small  loss  of 
about  10  per  cent  or  less  will  occur  under  ordinary  favorable  condi- 
tions, through  fermentations  and  respiration  of  the  plant  cells. 

The  reason  why  legumes  are  not  siloed  more  generally  must  be 
sought  in  the  fact  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  secure  a  good  quality  of 
silage  from  these  crops  than  from  Indian  corn,  unless  the  necessary 
conditions  for  success  in  making  legume  silage  are  clearly  understood; 


—  19  — 

furthermore,  the  flavor  of  the  silage  is  not,  as  a  rule,  as  agreeable  as 
that  of  corn  silage,  and  farm  animals  do  not  relish  it  quite  as  much 
at  first.  When  once  accustomed  to  legume  silage,  however,  they  do 
well  on  it;  dairy  cows  will  eat  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  clover  or 
alfalfa  silage  per  head  daily.  On  account  of  the  larger  amount  of 
protein  furnished  in  this  feed  than  in  the  corn  silage,  less  or  cheaper 
concentrates  may  be  fed  in  the  rations  and  the  cost  of  production  thus 
decreased. 

Pea  or  corn  cannery  refuse  is  often  put  up  in  large  silage  stacks  near  canning 
factories  or  in  ordinary  silos.  It  makes  a  valuable  feed  for  fattening  cattle,  sheep 
or  dairy  cows,  and  compares  favorably  with  corn  silage ;  by  some  feeders  it  is 
considered  superior  to  this  silage,  especially  for  dairy  cows.  It  is  also  fed  to  horses, 
mules  and  hogs  to  a  limited  extent.1  Like  other  kinds  of  silage  it  should  be  fed 
with  dry  hay  or  corn  stalks  and,  for  best  results,  with  some  grain  feed,  and  not 
as  the  exclusive  feed  for  the  stock,  as  is  sometimes  done. 

Green  oats,  volunteer  grain,  and  other  cereal  fodders  are  occasionally  siloed  when 
grown  for  forage  or  in  case  they  can  not  be  used  for  grain.  They  are  cut  when 
the  kernels  are  past  the  milk  stage  and  filled  into  the  silo  after  having  been  run 
through  a  cutter.  If  the  grain  has  become  nearly  ripe,  it  is  necessary  to  add  consider- 
able water  to  the  green  fodder  as  it  goes  into  the  silo  either  through  the  blower  or  in 
the  silo  after  each  load,  and  the  cut  mass  must  be  carefully  distributed  and  tramped 
down  along  the  wall  of  the  silo.  Oat,  barley  or  wheat  silage  made  in  this  manner 
is  of  excellent  quality  and  furnishes  a  very  palatable  nutritious  feed  for  cattle 
and  sheep. 

Beet  tops  and  leaves  are  generally  siloed  in  European  beet-growing  countries  by 
being  placed  in  large  trenches  in  the  field  and  covering  these  with  boards  or  straw 
and  a  layer  of  dirt.  Preserved  in  this  way  they  make  a  slimy,  strong-smelling 
silage,  which  is,  however,  greatly  relished  by  milch  cows  and  fed  heavily  on  the 
dairy  farms  on  the  Continent.  Because  of  the  shallowness  of  the  pits  very  large 
losses  of  feed  materials  are  sustained  by  this  method  of  siloing,  viz,  twenty-five  to 
thirty-three  per  cent  or  more  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  leaves  and  tops. 

Beet  pulp  is  preserved  in  similar  trenches  or  shallow  pits  in  western  states 
where  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  is  an  important  industry.  The  siloed 
("cured")  beet  pulp  is  an  excellent  feed  for  fattening  steers,  sheep  or  dairy  cows. 
As  it  is  made  mostly  in  regions  where  alfalfa  is  the  main  hay  crop  it  is,  as  a  rule, 
fed  with  chopped  alfalfa  hay  which  it  supplements  nicely,  being  high  in  insoluble 
carbohydrates  and  relatively  low  in  protein.  Its  feeding  value  may  be  considered 
equal  to  about  one-half  that  of  corn  silage. 

Of  other  materials  that  are  occasionally  made  into  silage  may  be  mentioned : 
Soybeans  and  cow  peas  (alone  or  with  Indian  corn),  vetches,  apple  pomace,  wet 
brewers'  grains,  sorghum  bagasse,  sugar  cane  tops,  potato  tops,  hop  vines,  sugar 
beet  tops  and  shocked  corn,  rye  grass  and  clover,  alfalfa  and  Hungarian  grass, 
thistles  and  other  weeds.  None  of  these  crops  are,  however,  of  sufficient  importance 
to  call  for  more  than  mere  mention. 

General  remarks  on  making  silage.  In  order  to  make  good  silage 
the  crop  must  have  a  water  content  between  sixty  and  eighty  per  cent ; 
about  seventy  per  cent  gives  the  best  quality  of  silage.  With  a  water 
content  toward  the  upper  limit  given,  the  silage  will  be  very  high  in 
acidity,  while  if  much  below  seventy  per  cent  of  water  is  present  there 
is  great  danger  of  spoiled  silage,  and  white  or  other  molds  appearing 


'Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  circular  45. 


—  20  -■ 

in  the  silo.  Silage  from  such  dry  feed  is  moreover  not  as  palatable 
as  that  containing  a  normal  percentage  of  water.  A  limited  amount 
of  water  added  at  the  time  of  filling  the  silo  will  aid  in  making  silage 
of  good  quality  from  a  crop  that  has  been  allowed  to  dry  considerably 
before  cutting. 

Indian  corn  is  preferably  cut  for  the  silo  by  means  of  a  corn  binder, 
at  the  time  of  approaching  maturity,  when  the  kernels  are  beginning 
to  harden.  Legumes  are  cut  at  the  beginning  of  bloom,  and  the  cereals 
when  the  kernels  are  in  the  milky  stage ;  in  case  of  barley  rather  before 
than  after  this  stage.  Sweet  sorghum  and  grain  sorghums  are  cut 
when  the  seeds  are  hard  and  fully  matured.  This  is  of  special  import- 
ance in  the  case  of  sweet  sorghum,  which  will  make  a  very  acid  silage 
when  cut  at  an  earlier  stage  of  development. 

The  silage  crops  are  always  run  through  a  power  feed  cutter  in 
filling  the  silo.  This  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  makes  it  easier 
to  both  fill  and  empty  the  silo,  and  makes  the  fodder  pack  better  than 
when  siloed  whole,  thus  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  silo.  A  cutter 
of  ample  capacity  (say,  five  to  ten  tons  per  hour  for  a  hundred-ton 
silo  or  less)  should  be  provided,  which  will  also  elevate  the  cut  mass 
into  the  silo  by  means  of  a  blower  operated  by  a  high-speed  rotating 
fan.  It  is  advisable  to  shred  or  cut  the  feed  fine,  in  case  of  Indian 
corn  and  sorghum  into  half -inch  pieces,  and  for  cereals  and  other  fine- 
stem  forage  into  one-inch  pieces. 

During  the  filling  of  the  silo  one  or  two  men  must  be  kept  in  the 
silo  distributing  the  cut  mass  and  tramping  it  down  carefully,  espe- 
cially along  the  wall.  A  cement  tamper  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
this  work  which  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  securing  good  silage 
and  minimum  losses  of  feed  materials  in  the  siloing  process.  If  need 
be,  water  can  be  added  in  the  silo  when  filled,  by  means  of  a  garden 
sprinkler  and  the  mass  may  be  left  to  ferment  and  settle.  Most 
farmers  fill  up  the  silo  a  second  time  after  a  few  days  to  a  week,  as 
it  will  have  settled  four  to  six  feet  by  this  time  in  the  case  of  tall  silos 
that  have  been  filled  rapidly. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  put  any  cover  on  the  siloed  mass,  but  if  desired 
a  load  of  cut  straw,  marsh  hay,  chaff,  etc.,  may  be  placed  on  top  and 
thoroughly  wetted,  and  oats  then  sown  thereon;  these  will  soon  germi- 
nate and  a  heavy  mat  of  roots  and  green  stuff  will  form  that  will  protect 
the  underlying  feed  from  decomposition. 

The  silage  will  be  ready  for  feeding  in  two  to  three  weeks  after  fill- 
ing. In  opening  the  silo  the  top  six  to  twelve-inch  layer  of  spoiled 
silage  is  removed,  below  which  a  good  quality  of  silage  will  be  reached. 
The  silage  will  improve  in  quality  as  the  silo  is  being  emptied  until  the 


—  21  — 

last  foot  or  two  is  reached,  which  will  be  likely  to  be  rather  acid  if  the 
siloed  mass  contained  considerable  water  or  a  good  deal  of  water  was 
added  and  the  silo  is  not  provided  with  a  drain.  If  used  for  feeding, 
this  sour  silage  should  be  fed  to  stock  in  only  very  small  quantities. 

The  silage  is  kept  level  in  the  silo  all  the  time  during  emptying  so 
that  as  little  silage  as  possible  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  secondary 
fermentations  thus  avoided.  A  sufficient  amount  of  silage  should  be 
removed  daily  to  keep  the  silage  from  spoiling,  viz:  one  to  two  inches, 
according  to  the  air  temperature.  The  silage  must  be  fed  out  more 
rapidly  in  warm  than  in  cool  weather.  It  is,  therefore,  important  that 
the  diameter  of  the  silo  be  no  greater  than  that  the  stock  on  hand  will 
be  able  to  eat  a  layer  of  silage  daily  of  the  thickness  suggested. 

Once  sealed  in  the  silo  the  silage  will  keep  indefinitely  without 
material  changes  after  the  first  few  weeks.  Instances  are  on  record 
of  silage  a  dozen  years  old  or  more  having  been  found  of  excellent 
quality  and  eaten  by  stock  with  great  relish.  If  a  silo  is  not  com- 
pletely emptied  by  next  filling  time  the  new  crop  may  be  placed 
directly  on  top  of  the  old  silage ;  if  this  is  carefully  leveled  off  immedi- 
ately before  filling  there  will  be  no  spoiled  silage  at  the  juncture  of  the 
two  crops. 

In  emptying  the  silo  it  is  convenient  and,  in  case  of  outside  silos 
almost  necessary,  to  provide  a  chute  or  conveyor  through  which  the 
silage  may  be  thrown  directly  into  the  feed  truck  or  the  wagon.  The 
silage  should  be  placed  before  the  stock  in  one  or  two  handlings  and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out  appreciably  before  being  eaten  by  the 
animals,  as  it  will  otherwise  lose  some  of  its  palatability.  In  the  case 
of  weedy  alfalfa  silage  and  barley  silage  the  foxtail  and  barley  heads, 
respectively,  will  soon  dry  out,  if  left  exposed,  at  least  in  hot  weather, 
and  will  be  likely  to  injure  the  mouths  of  the  animals,  especially  if 
siloed  at  a  rather  advanced  stage  of  maturity. 

Feeding  silage.  Silage  makes  an  excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows,  fat- 
tening cattle  and  sheep  and  is  also  fed  to  advantage  in  small  quantities 
to  other  classes  of  farm  animals.  The  following  amounts  of  well- 
preserved  Indian  corn  silage  may  be  fed  safely  to  the  different  classes 
of  live  stock,  somewhat  smaller  amounts  of  other  kinds  of  silage  being 
given,  viz: 

Dairy  cows,  twenty-five  to  forty  pounds  per  head  daily. 

Heifers  and  young  beef  stock,  ten  to  twenty  pounds. 

Fattening  steers  and  beef  cows,  twenty  to  thirty  pounds. 

Horses,  five  to  ten  pounds. 

Wintering  work  horses,  ten  to  twenty  pounds. 

Sheep,  two  to  three  pounds. 

Brood  sows,  two  to  three  pounds. 


—  22  — 

In  feeding  silage  to  horses  and  mules,  it  is  important  to  pick  out 
lumps  of  moldy  or  decayed  silage,  as  fatal  results  may  follow  the 
feeding  of  such  silage.  Other  stock  appear  less  sensitive  to  moldy  feed 
than  horses  are,  but  such  silage  can  not  be  safely  fed  in  any  case  and 
should  be  thrown  away.  While  silage  •  is  not  especially  adapted  for 
feeding  to  hogs,  it  may  be  given  in  small  quantities  to  advantage,  espe- 
cially to  brood  sows.  Alfalfa  silage  has  been  found  to  make  a  good 
feed  for  sows,  fed  as  suggested,  a  couple  of  pounds  per  head  daily. 

Silage  should  never  be  fed  as  the  sole  rough  feed  to  any  class  of  farm 
animals,  but  always  with  dry  roughage,  like  alfalfa,  wild  or  grain  hay, 
?orn  stalks,  sorghum  hay  or  cereal  straw.  In  the  case  of  dairy  cows, 
growing  or  fattening  animals,  an  allowance  of  grain  feeds  with  silage 
and  hay  will  produce  good  results,  the  amount  to  be  given  depending 
on  the  quality  of  the  roughage,  the  production  of  the  animals,  and  the 
relative  prices  of  hay  and  grain.  It  may  be  stated,  as  a  general  rule, 
that  when  grain  is  worth  more  than  twice  the  price  of  a  good  grade  of 
hay  it  will  only  pay  to  feed  it  sparingly,  except  in  the  case  of  heavy- 
producing  dairy  cows  which  can  not  be  maintained  at  a  maximum 
production  unless  they  receive  a  liberal  amount  of  grain,  say  a  pound 
for  every  five  to  seven  pounds  of  milk,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
hay  fed  and  of  the  milk  produced. 

Silage  rations  for  farm  animals.  The  following  rations  are  given 
as  examples  of  combinations  of  different  feeds  with  silage  and  dry 
roughage,  with  the  amounts  in  each  case  that  may  be  fed  to  the  various 
classes  of  farm  animals  under  the  conditions  present  in  this  state: 

Dairy  cows: 

(1)  Indian  corn  silage,  35  lbs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  ad  lib.    (about  8  lbs.). 

Concentrates  (rolled  barley,  oats,  dried  beet  pulp,  wheat  bran  or  shorts 
linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  cocoanut  meal,  etc.,  two  or  three  mixed, 
according  to  current  market  prices) ,  5  to  8  lbs.  per  head  daily. 

(2)  Alfalfa  silage,  25  lbs. 

Wild  hay  or  grain  hay,  ad  lib.   (about  10  lbs.). 
Concentrates    (same  as  before  mentioned). 

(3)  Kafir  or  milo  silage,  30  lbs. 
Alfalfa  hay  ad  lib.   (about  10  lbs.). 
Concentrates   (as  before). 

Fattening  steers: 

(1)  Alfalfa  silage,  20  lbs. 
Grain  hay,  10  lbs. 
Rolled  barley,  8  lbs. 

(2)  Indian  corn  silage,  25  lbs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  10  lbs. 
Rolled  barley,  6  lbs. 
Cocoanut  meal.  2  lbs. 


—  23  — 

Wintering  cattle: 

Corn  or  sorghum  silage,  20  lbs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  5  lbs. 
Oat  straw,  10  lbs. 

Work  horses: 

Silage,  5  to  10  lbs. 
Hay,  10  lbs. 

Oats  and  barley    (1:1  by  weight),  or  barley,  wheat  bran  and  cocoanut  meal 
(3:3:1),  10  lbs. 

Fattening  sheep: 

Silage,  2  lbs.  per  head  daily. 
Hay,  1  lb. 
Oats  and  barley,  1  lb.  each,  or  1  to  1*  lbs.  of  other  grain  feeds. 

Breeding  ewes: 

Indian  corn  or  sorghum  silage,  3  to  4  lbs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1  lb. 

If  alfalfa  silage  is  available,  grain  hay  or  wild  hay  may  be  substituted  for 
alfalfa  hay. 


STATION    PUBLICATIONS    AVAILABLE    FOR   DISTRIBUTION. 


1897. 

1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1914. 


REPORTS. 
Resistant  Vines,   their   Selection,   Adaption,   and   Grafting.     Appendix   to   Viti- 

cultural  Report  for  1896. 
Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1898-1901. 
Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1901-03. 
Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-04. 
Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

July,   1913-June,  1914. 


No. 
168. 

169. 

170. 
174. 

177. 

178. 
184. 

185. 

195. 
197. 


198. 
203. 

207. 
208. 
211. 

212. 
213. 
216. 


Observations  on  Some  Vine  Dis- 
eases in   Sonoma  County. 

Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for 
Alkali. 

Studies    in    Grasshopper    Control. 

A  New  Wine-Cooling   Machine. 

A  New  Method  of  Making  Dry  Red 
Wine. 

Mosquito  Control. 

Report  of  the  Plant  Pathologist  to 
July  1,   1906. 

Report  of  Progress  in  Cereal  Inves- 
tigations. 

The    California    Grape    Root-Worm. 

Grape  Culture  in  California ;  Im- 
proved Methods  of  Wine-Making ; 
Yeast   from   California   Grapes. 

The  Grape  Leaf-Hopper. 

Report  of  the  Plant  Pathologist  to 
July  1,   1909. 

The  Control   of   the  Argentine  Ant. 

The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 

How  to  Increase  the  Yield  of  Wheat 
in  California. 

California  White  Wheats. 

The  Principles  of  Wine-Making. 

A  Progress  Report  upon  Soil  and 
Climatic  Factors  Influencing  the 
Composition  of  Wheat. 


BULLETINS. 

No. 
220. 
225. 
227. 
230. 
234. 


241. 
242. 
243. 

244. 
246. 
248. 

249. 

250. 

251. 


252. 
253. 


254, 
255. 
256, 

257, 


Dosage  Tables. 

Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali. 

Grape  Vinegar. 

Enological  Investigations. 

Red  Spiders  and  Mites  of  Citrus 
Trees. 

Vine  Pruning  in  California.     Part  I. 

Humus  in  California  Soils. 

The  Intradermal  Test  for  Tubercu- 
losis in  Cattle  and  Hogs. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Oranges. 

Vine  Pruning  in  California.     Part  II. 

The  Economic  Value  of  Pacific 
Coast    Kelps. 

Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Loquat. 

Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Or- 
ganic Matter  in  Septic  and  Im- 
hoff  Tank  Sludges. 

Deterioration  of  Lumber. 

Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Foothills, 
California. 

The  Avocado  in  California. 

The  Citricola  Scale. 

The  Value  of  Barley  for  Cows  Fed 
Alfalfa. 

New  Dosage  Tables. 


CIRCULARS. 

No.  No. 

65.  The    California    Insecticide    Law.  110. 

69.  The      Extermination      of      Morning-  111. 

Glory. 

70.  Observations  on  the  Status  of  Corn  113. 

Growing   in    California. 

76.   Hot   Room   Callusing.  114. 

79.  List  of  Insecticide  Dealers.  115. 

80.  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs.  117. 

82.  The    Common    Ground    Squirrels    of 

California.  118. 

83.  Potato  Growing  Clubs.  119. 

87.  Alfalfa.  121. 

88.  Advantages  to  the  Breeder  in  Test- 

ing  his    Pure-bred    Cows   for   the  122. 
Register  of  Merit. 

91.  Disinfection  on  the  Farm.  124. 

92.  Infectious  Abortion  and  Sterility  in  125. 

Cows.  12  6. 

100.  Pruning  Frosted  Citrus  Trees. 

101.  Codling  Moth  Control  in  the  Sacra-  127. 

mento  Valley.  128. 

106.  Directions      for      using      Anti-Hog-  129. 

Cholera  Serum.  130. 

107.  Spraying  Walnut   Trees   for   Blight  131. 

and  Aphis  Control. 

108.  Grape  Juice.  132. 

109.  Community      or      Local      Extension 

Work  by   the   High    School   Agri-  133. 

cultural  Department.  134. 


Green   Manuring   in   California. 
The   Use   of   Lime   and   Gypsum   on 

California  Soils. 
Correspondence  Courses  in  Agricul- 
ture. 
Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 
Grafting   Vinifera    Vineyards. 
The   Selection  and  Cost  of  a  Small 

Pumping  Plant. 
The  County  Farm  Bureau. 
Winery  Directions. 
Some  Things  the  Prospective  Settler 

Should  Know. 
The     Management     of     Strawberry 

Soils  in  Pajaro  Valley. 
Alfalfa  Silage  for  Fattening  Steers. 
Aphids   on   Grain   and   Cantaloupes. 
Spraying      for      the      Grape      Leaf 

Hopper. 
House   Fumigation. 
Insecticide  Formulas. 
The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects. 
Cabbage   Growing  in   California. 
Spraying    for    the    Control    of    the 

Walnut   Aphis. 
When    to    Vaccinate    Against    Hog 

Cholera. 
The   County  Farm  Adviser. 
Control  of  Raisin  Insects. 


